I don't care much about winter performance as it doesn't get super cold here. I decided to try the X-cess as it has good viscosity at 100C, a Noack rating just below 10% and a high VI. In the end, I decided my prior experience of very little oil consumption with the Motul pushed me back in their direction after looking at a host of options from Pennzoil, Castrol (OEM), Mobil 1, Redline, etc.pouring over all their specs and taking price into consideration. I'm not sure if the 8100 falls into that category but from what I understand, it's a higher "grade" than even the Specific. I also read about Motul loosing a lawsuit in Europe recently as some of their formulations were using group III oils and not true group IV synthetics. I did a ton of research and spent quite a bit of time on the "Bob the oil guy" web page until acronyms made my head explode and left me with a less clear path to well, clarity. I decided to switch back to Motul, this time the X-cess 8100 5w40. With Motul, I'd had virtually zero oil consumption with the exact same driving habits. Car ran fine, engine was just as quiet overall but my oil consumption went from zero to about 1 liter in 5,000 miles. My last oil change I decided to make a switch to Liqui-Moly, specifically the 4100 Top Tech 5w40. ** MB 229.52 specification is fully backward compatible with MB 229.51 and MB 229.I've used Motul since day one of ownership of my RS5 and had been using the Specific 502 00 5w-40 and the X-Clean 5w-40. * BMW LL-04 covers all the previous BMW specifications including BMW LL-98 and BMW LL-01 Outstanding detergent/dispersant power and better viscosity increase resistance.Environment friendly - reduces fuel consumption and therefore minimises greenhouse gases (CO2) emissions.Allows excellent oil flow at start up, faster oil pressure build up, faster revs raisings and faster operating temperature reach.Improved cold flow properties to reduce hydrodynamic friction of the oil, in order to obtain fuel economy especially when the oil is cold.Extended drain intervals as managed by the vehicle on-board computer.High lubricating properties such as wear protection and high temperature resistance for better controlled oil consumption.Synthetic base stocks coupled with specific friction modifier molecules and dedicated SAPS levels that generate outstanding oil film resistance, reduce friction in the engine and provide after treatment device compatibility.Reduces friction to ensure gains in energy savings, and therefore fuel economy benefits.Significant oil film resistance and low emission performance during use in powerful engines.a low friction, low HTHS viscosity.Ĭompatible with catalytic converters and Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF).ĭo not mix with lubricants that are not ACEA C3 or ACEA C2 compliant. high HTHS viscosity and mid SAPS with reduced content of sulphated ash, phosphorus and sulphur, or an ACEA C2 engine oil i.e. Suitable for vehicles that are Euro 4, 5 or 6 emission regulation compliant and require an ACEA C3 engine oil i.e. It is approved by BMW Group, GM (General Motors) Opel, Mercedes and Volkswagen for its Extra Fuel Economy (EFE) properties.Įspecially designed for the latest generation cars, powered by petrol or diesel engines, naturally aspirated or turbocharged, indirect or direct injection. Motul 8100 X-Clean EFE 5w-30 is an advanced fully synthetic petrol and diesel engine oil that provides high protection and fuel economy. Motul 8100 X-Clean EFE 5w-30 Fully Synthetic Car Engine Oil
0 Comments
Once you have done that, check the build number of Safari is now 15611.1.21.161.7 to ensure that you’re fully protected.Īpple released Big Sur 11.3 on 26 April 2021. Its security release notes are here, and a standalone installer package is available from here.Īpple strongly recommends all those using Catalina to install Security Update 2021-002 and update Safari to 14.1. Once you have done that, check the build number of Safari is now 14611.1.21.161.7 to ensure that you’re fully protected.Īnyone choosing to delay or deny either of these two important security updates needs to run additional security software to ensure that their vulnerable system is protected against these exploits: you’re on your own!Īpple released Catalina Security Update 2021-002 on 26 April 2021. An updated update now fixes those, and contains urgent fixes for two vulnerabilities affecting WebKit which Apple believes are already being exploited, as detailed here.Īpple strongly recommends all those using Mojave to install Security Update 2021-003 and update Safari to 14.1. Its security release notes are here, and a standalone installer package is available from here.Īpple also released an update to Safari 14.1, but the inital update contained some bugs which made it impossible to access some websites. This is a summary of what’s happened, and the updates available for Macs running Mojave, Catalina and Big Sur.Īpple released Mojave Security Update 2021-003 on 26 April 2021. If you need help, please contact Apple Support.A lot has changed in recent versions of macOS over the last couple of weeks. If your disk or volume still doesn't appear in Disk Utility, or Disk Utility reports that the erase process failed, your disk or Mac might need service.If you're erasing an external drive, make sure that it's connected directly to your Mac using a cable that you know is good.Shut down your Mac, then unplug all nonessential devices from your Mac.If your disk or volume doesn't appear, or the erase fails The Get Info window shows the Format of that volume. Select the volume in the Finder, then choose File > Get Info from the menu bar.The File System column on the right shows the format of each volume. Open System Information and select Storage in the sidebar.For more detail, choose File > Get Info from the Disk Utility menu bar. Select the volume in the Disk Utility sidebar, then check the information shown on the right.If you want to know which format is currently in use, use any of these methods: If you want your Mac to be able to start up from the volume you erased, reinstall macOS on that volume.You might be asked to enter your Apple ID. Otherwise, click Erase to erase just the selected volume. In that case, you should erase the volume group. If you see an Erase Volume Group button, the volume you selected is part of a volume group.Name: Type the name that you want the volume to have after you erase it.The volume your Mac started up from is named Macintosh HD, unless you changed its name. In the sidebar of Disk Utility, select the volume that you want to erase.If you're not erasing the volume your Mac started up from, you don't need to start up from macOS Recovery: just open Disk Utility from the Utilities folder of your Applications folder. How to erase a volume on your disk How To Format New Ssd If you want your Mac to be able to start up from the disk you erased, reinstall macOS on the disk.Click Erase to begin erasing your disk and every container and volume within it.Disk Utility shows a compatible format by default. Format: Choose APFS or Mac OS Extended (Journaled).Name: Type the name that you want the disk to have after you erase it.Click Erase, then complete these items:.Select the disk that you want to erase.In this example, Apple SSD is the startup disk: The disk your Mac started up from is at the top of the list. The sidebar now shows your disks (devices) and any containers and volumes within them. Choose View > Show All Devices from the menu bar in Disk Utility.If you're not erasing the disk your Mac started up from, you don't need to start up from macOS Recovery: just open Disk Utility from the Utilities folder of your Applications folder. Then select Disk Utility from the Utilities window and click Continue. Mac OS Extended (Journaled): Uses the Mac format (Journaled HFS Plus) to protect the integrity of the hierarchical file system. Choose one of the following Mac OS Extended file system formats for compatibility with Mac computers using macOS 10.12 or earlier. The Innkeeper's Daughter is a Dwarven Archaeology solve that tells a tale about the darker side of Dwarven culture. There are some fancy versions of hearthstones:.Hearthstones are on a 30-minute cooldown, and although there are many variations of Hearthstones, all of the ones that bring you to your desired inn share this cooldown.All players can get a new hearthstone and change the location by talking to any innkeeper.For example, Alliance players pushing for Tol'vir digsites may want to set their hearth to Desolace since there's easy ways of getting to other corners of the map via Darnassus, Theramore, Uldum, and Hyjal. In addition to the travel options below, setting your hearthstone to a good place is key-a location that's not easily accessible through other means. The "Getting To:" sections of this guide include a map with mouseover travel details, as well as tabs describing every item and method of transportation, ranging from simple town portals to elaborate portals that can only be accessed after completing quest chains. There are many varied items that can port you to special locations, like guild capes and teleport tabards.Many capital cities have portals to other capital cities-Dalaran and Vale of Eternal Blossoms have portals to major faction capitals in Azeroth, while Stormwind and Orgrimmar have portals (no questing to unlock required) for all Cataclysm zones.Recruit a Friend is great for quickly leveling characters, as there are triple experience and increased reputation gains, as well as bonus levels that can be granted to characters. With Recruit a Friend, you can summon linked characters to each other's locations anywhere in the world.This summons individual players to the stone's location. Summoning stones are also found outside major instances and raids.A warlock's Ritual of Summoning is useful for straggler players left behind-and especially getting a low-level player to an otherwise inaccessible zone.Mages can port players to capital cities, as well as teleporting themselves. You can start off riding ground mounts at level 10, increasing your travel speed and learning how to fly at later levels. We've got a page covering Riding: skill levels, mount types, speeds, and training costs.You must discover a flight path before using it for the first time-these are marked in green on your minimap. Flight paths are what most players will use to travel between nearby zones.There are numerous items, teleports, and portals that can shave minutes off your travel experience-even breadcrumb quests that you can hold onto which will provide useful ports! And which boat goes where from Stormwind anyway? Basic flight paths can take you anywhere, but they're slow and easily up to 15 minutes across a continent. Getting around Azeroth quickly is important-especially with holidays requiring lots of travel like the Lunar Festival and Love is in the Air. With the WoW transportation guide, you'll learn about all the travel options on each continent, as well as basics to flying, riding training, mage portals, and Hearthstones. Pokemon hidden crystal restocked!!!! Now with even more crystal Pokémon possibilities!!! #briarwoodsoaps #whippedsoap #pokemon #pokemonsoap #pokeball Pokemon Moon Black 2 (Updated ) 193. first you should deposit the pokemon that you want to clone in a free box then change box and wait untile they says saving dont turn off the power a few seconde after the word the reset your. Thank you for watchingSubscribe to my channel for newsYou can Follow me on Instagram: For secure download select given 4 out of 1 option That also means, not only weaker Pokemon are made better (with reasonable stat boost, new moveset,) the commonly-seen ones are given new abilities, moves TikTok video from Briarwood Soaps "Only a few jars left of our hidden crystal pokemon soaps and Crystal hello kitty soaps. Download Pokemon Emerald ROM and use it with an emulator. Get eight medals or devote yourself to battle against other trainers, on this occasion you have more to pokemon Leaf green Version. As a nod to the planned battle in Gen 1, where his team is still in the game files. com, the best website that provides the 100% working downloading links of Pokemon rom hacks. The original Pokémon Crystal game was released for the Game Boy Color on Jin Japan. No Comments on Pokemon Ultra Sun And Moon Gba Rom Hack Download Posted in test By Vaseline Posted on Tagged Hack, Pokemon, Ultra We can now get 4k and Pokemon Crystal Clearのバージョン1.The game has been improved a lot since the last game they created. Existen emuladores para diferentes plataformas como Windows, Android, iOS y Mac OS X. Have fun playing the amazing Pokemon - Yellow Version game for Game Boy Color. Game Boy Color es una consola portátil de quinta generación de la familia de Nintendo Game Boy. More Pokemon White 2 Cheats and Description. This Pokemon game is the US English version at Romsmania. We have 214 cheats and tips on Nintendo DS. 1) ROM download is available to play for Gameboy Advance. Download Now Pokemon - Fire Red Version (V1. melton fabric uk x sims 4 additional traits mod x sims 4 additional traits mod In Japan, Pokemon Crystal was released as the main reason to pick up a Mobile Adapter, the interface between the Game Boy Color/Advance and a Japanese cell-phone. If you have any cheats or tips for Pokemon White 2 please send them in here. While there might be legit download links it's best to avoid them. You lot can play this game on the emulator. Extract the Nintendo 3DS game from the archive 3. Dragon Ball Xenoverse corrects that with plenty of story, and it even attempts to bring this up in a new and original My Crystal Beast Starter. Head back to our Pokemon Sapphire Action Replay Codes page for a load more codes and tips for Pokemon Sapphire. Pokemon Emerald : Complete Hoenn Dex Edition. Pokemon Crystal is a high quality game that works in all major modern web browsers. This last set of Pokemon Crystal Clear cheats doesn’t belong to any category. Pokemon Cristal ORIGINAL + Pokémon Crystal Version is a role-playing video game developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Color. Pokemon hidden crystal restocked!!!! Now with even more crystal Pokémon possibilities!!! #briarwoodsoaps #whippedsoap #pokemon #pokemonsoap #pokeball Crystal Beast 3x Structure. Purchased item: Crystal Beast October 2022. Pokemon Liquid Crystal (hack) Description. Umbreon Large Crystal Pokeball Laser Engraving. Pokémon Blaze Black 2 & Pokémon Volt White 2 are essentially the sequels to my Black & White hacks known as Blaze Crystal Beast 3x Structure. Play online GBA game on desktop PC, mobile, and tablets in maximum quality. "/> ym2612 datasheet thin in spanish blogul lui aniola. This method allows you to download Mavericks and Yosemite by logging with your Apple ID - only if you previously downloaded them from the Mac App Store. Scroll down to find the preferred OS X version.The purchased section lists only those operating systems that you had downloaded in the past. However, it doesn’t always work that way. There you’ll find all the installers you can download. If you once had purchased an old version of Mac OS X from the App Store, open it and go to the Purchased tab. How to download older Mac OS X versions via the App Store If you succeed in downloading the OS installation, your next step is to create a bootable USB or DVD and then reinstall the OS on your computer. The main challenge is to download the OS installation file itself, because your Mac may already be running a newer version. That’s why going back to a past Apple OS version is problematic. Normally, it is assumed that updating OS is a one-way road. It deletes system junk, old broken apps, and the rest of hidden junk on your drive.ĭownload CleanMyMac for OS 10.4 - 10.8 (free version)ĭownload CleanMyMac for OS 10.9 (free version)ĭownload CleanMyMac for OS 10.10 - 10.14 (free version) Our favorite is CleanMyMac as it’s most simple to use of all. If you aren’t comfortable with cleaning the Mac manually, there are some nice automatic “room cleaners”. Then you can move your space hoggers onto an external drive or a cloud storage. Go to Finder > All My Files > Arrange by size Locate the biggest files on your computer:.Here are some ideas to free up space on your drive: Next, you will need enough disk space available, for example, to create Recovery Partition. Note, that it is recommended that you install OS on a clean drive. The chart below tells you how much free space is needed. One more argument is that the free space on your disk translates into virtual memory so your apps have “fuel” to operate on. This includes not just space for the OS itself but also space for other applications and your user data. Given your Mac isn’t new and is filled with data, you will probably need enough free space on your Mac. We’ll be repeatedly referring to these Apple OS versions below, so it’s good to know the basic macOS timeline. Further down we’ll explain where to get one and what problems you may face down the road. Finally, if you want to run a parallel copy of Mac OS X on a virtual machine, you too will need a working installation file of an older Mac OS X. Also, you may have noticed your Mac’s performance went down right after the last update. To begin with, some of your apps may not be working properly (or simply crash) on newer operating systems. There are many reasons that could point you to this radical decision. So, you’ve decided to download an older version of Mac OS X. It removes only safe-to-delete files and is notarized by Apple. So here’s the tip for you: download CleanMyMac X to refresh your Mac’s drive automatically. It limits where you can play and is also a safety concern. While Light Table #1 was much easier to put together and far less expensive, the big downside of Light Table #1 is that it requires an electrical outlet. Turn the lights on, snap on the lid, and voila! Once the container has completely dried, adhere your LED lights inside the bin. In a well ventilated area, spray the inside of the bin with the frosted semi-transparent spray paint covering all interior parts of the bin. Open your storage container and lay it so that the interior of the bin exposed. Frosted Glass Semi-Transparent Spray Paint.The size of the one I used was 41 quarts similar to this one. Clear Plastic Storage Container with a flat surface.Snap the lid on, plug in your light box, and you’re done. Next, tear a piece of parchment paper the size of your lid, trim with scissors for exact size, and tape it to the underside of the lid with clear scotch tape. You could drill a hole in the side for the plug, but I let the plug hang over the top of the bin and that seemed to work just fine for us. Take off the lid of your container, connect two or three strands of holiday lights, and lay them in the bottom of your plastic container. The size I used was 28-quarts, so a bin like this would do the job. Which will it be….? Method #1 or method #2?! THE SUSPENSE!!! Both light tables have pros and cons, but ultimately I have a favorite that will be revealed at the end of the post. When we moved last spring, I gave away the first light table I made and decided to try an entirely different method making a new one. After reading more about the Reggio Emilia educational approach and being inspired by the photos in this post by Racheous, I’ve been trying to find more opportunities to provide light play in our home. Light play is a creative, open-ended learning experience for children with so many outlets for inquiry, experimentation, and most importantly - FUN! It can be a platform for discovering color theory, light and shadows, creating art, construction, and sensory play to name a few explorations. Or perhaps the post should be titled “A Tale of Two Light Tables”? Below are two DIY light table methods, one I created last year and one I put together this month. Since it is a very high-quality video format, MOV files take significantly more memory space on a computer. It is compatible across different versions of QuickTimePlayer, both for Mac and Windows. MOV files contain videos, audio, subtitles, timecodes and other media types. It was designed to support the QuickTime player. MOV is a popular video file format designed by Apple. Additionally, MP4 provides high quality video while maintaining relatively small file sizes. An MP4 format can store audio files, video files, still images, and text. Most digital platforms and devices support MP4. MPEG-4 Part 14 or MP4 is one of the earliest digital video file formats introduced in 2001. Let’s briefly review and understand the common formats in the market and their features. To choose the best digital video format for your needs, first you must understand the difference between them. Afterwards the encoded video and audio are synchronized and stored in a media container-the file format.Ĩ Common Video File Formats, Codecs, and Containers When creating a video, a video codec encodes and compresses the video while the audio codec does the same with sound. A codec encodes and decodes multimedia data such as audio and video. A video format is the container that stores audio, video, subtitles and any other metadata. Read on to learn how to choose the right format for you.Ī container and a codec are two components of any video file. For example, a video format for web development will be different from the format you use for your social media. If you want your videos to perform well on any platform, you must understand how each video format works. Any video clip you watch on your smartphone, computer, TV or tablet has a specific type of file format. This website is hosted and operated by NinjaTrader, LLC (“NT”), a software development company which owns and supports all proprietary technology relating to and including the NinjaTrader trading platform. No representation is being made that any account will or is likely to achieve profit or losses similar to those shown. Simulated trading programs in general are also subject to the fact that they are designed with the benefit of hindsight. Also, since the trades have not been executed, the results may have under-or-over compensated for the impact, if any, of certain market factors, such as lack of liquidity. View Full Risk Disclosure.ĬFTC Rules 4.41 - Hypothetical or Simulated performance results have certain limitations, unlike an actual performance record, simulated results do not represent actual trading. Past performance is not necessarily indicative of future results. Only risk capital should be used for trading and only those with sufficient risk capital should consider trading. Risk capital is money that can be lost without jeopardizing one’s financial security or lifestyle. An investor could potentially lose all or more than the initial investment. NinjaTrader Ecosystem, LLC is not responsible for the accuracy or content of any product, service or company linked to on this website.įutures, foreign currency and options trading contains substantial risk and is not for every investor. The companies and services listed on this website are not to be considered a recommendation and it is the reader's responsibility to evaluate any product, service, or company. This NinjaTrader Ecosystem website is for educational and informational purposes only and should not be considered a solicitation to buy or sell a futures contract or make any other type of investment decision. Since these consultants are third-party services for NinjaTrader, all pricing and support information will need to be obtained through the consultant. You can locate the contact information for the consultants on their direct websites for any additional questions you may have. Once you have identified your consultants of choice, please visit each consultant's site for more information or contact them directly to learn more: Simply enter a consultant name or search by using our filter categories. You can search our extensive library of NinjaScript consultants through the link below. double test = High - Low would not be executed by the compiler and ignored as if it were a comment. In the case of my earlier replies in this thread, I used the terminology of "comment out" to mean place the // in front of lines that you don't want to execute, in effect making them the same as a comment. See Help Guide for additional information. Disable this property if your indicator requires custom values that cumulate with each new market data event. You would also see entire lines of comments that may be used to explain certain sections, for example: In C#, when you use // the compiler will not execute anything on that line after the //, so in C# the // is one way to comment what is going on in the code, for example:ĭouble test = High - Low // this is an example of a comment that would explain what "test" is If you are going to work in Ninjascript then you will want to become familiar with C# programming language as that is what Ninjascript is based on and the C# syntax governs everything. Thanks for your post and welcome to the NinjaTrader forums! (Note: if you have already changed the indicator, the line number above may not match so just refer then to the original Pivots indicator to verify/ find the specific lines of code needed to change in your indicator) To: public class PivotsType 1Converter : To: įrom: public class PivotsTypeConverter : The easiest way to deal with them is to comment them out from your indicator (lines 453 - 468).įor the type converter, it would be easiest to rename it. The enums have already been created by the original pivots indicator and they already exist in the indicators namespace. The error messages you posted are related to the the two public enums and the "TypeConverter". It sounds like you have created a copy using the process you did, there is a slightly easier way:ġ) open the indicator in the Ninjascript editorĢ) In the code of the Ninjascript file, right mouse click and select "save as"ģ) Enter new indicator/file name. This helps the community keep NT7 and NT8 items separate when searching. Please note we are asking all NinjaTrader8 posts to be placed in the NinjaTrader8 beta forums. These dragons are extremely powerful and useful in dragon city battles. Rare, legendary and pure dragons are the most wanted dragons in the game but breeding those takes a lot of time and luck. Its advantages mean that you can complete more than 1 breed at a time. Yes, the breeding sanctuary is a very cost effective second breeding place. (your dragons need to be at least level 4 before they can breed.) click breed when the icon appears and wait for your dragons to produce an egg. If you think there’s a result missing that should be included, please use the breeding calculator to “try” the result, and then see if it shows up here as a possible breeding combination. The next option is to try and breed one of the many legendary dragons that have a single element of legend. Legend dragons are now in difficulty 3, with the exception of legendary dragons (difficulty 1!) pure + pure will give you either pure or legend. Breeding is the main way to obtain dragons.breeding is done by pairing two adult dragons (level 4 or higher) in the breeding den, the only place where dragons can breed.the amount of time it will take to breed a dragon is determined by the elements and type of the two dragons being bred together and the dragon which will be produced from that breeding. The only way for you to breed a legend dragon is by breeding dragon pairs with either a pure element or legend element. The early level dragons arnt that great, but one you hit level 3, you unlock new legendary dragon breeds that are recently easy to make. So, if your desired dragon doesn’t appear, you should try again or even try another combination from the list. First, you have to have a breeding mountain. Parent levels 10 to 14.īreeding pure dragons these can be breed using any of the 4 legendary dragons. If you notice a result that shouldn’t be in the. You really have to rely heavily on your luck to get ashot at landing these dragons.tip: Breeding calculator helps you know the result rate when breeding 2 dragons before you decide breed parents in game. Legendary dragons are hard to breed if you don’t know the combinations to get to it. One of the most challenging and rewarding breeding objectives in dc is the breedable exclusive, specially after law update. There are many elements similar to pokémon, including battling against other breeds of dragons. First off, you will need pure hybrid dragons. The dragon breeding list for the legendary rank is well, pretty rare. Wondering how to get all those different dragon species? Completing all dragons from common to the rarest is considered as an achievement by many dragon city players. I got 2 legendaries in a row with level 20 coolfire + level 20 soccer. In case you want to show the calculation result as soon as select 2 parent dragons without click calculate button, turn on auto calculate button It is current as of februand the principles described here are how the breeding calculator and how to breed pages function.ĭragon city breeds DIY Pinterest Dragon city Each dragon can be spawned through several different combinations, but no result is 100% certain.ĭragon city breeding guide for legendary. If you’re looking at this slice of cord and are wondering which side is the anterior side and which is the dorsal, well that is why we are covering this topic today, so let’s get our frame of reference. You may even recall what we are covering today. If you’ve been following along, you know the grey matter, the white matter and you may remember a lot of the features that we’ve covered. Well, we’re here now so let’s go over it.Ībove you see a transverse slice of spinal cord. However, we never really touched on the landmarks we use when we talk about the spinal cord. Probably after the gross anatomy of the cord, which was similar to today. Had I planned this series better, I may have done this post closer to the beginning. Over the course of our series I did my best to help orient us by pointing out different features of the spinal cord, but we never really defined what those were explicitly and seperate from the other things we were covering. If I were to drop you off in the middle of some place familiar to you, you would be able to orient yourself and find your way to wherever it is you want to go. So today, we are going to take a detour and go over spinal cord features.Ĭhances are, if you’ve lived in one place for some time you know where you are in relation to the things around you. We never really talked about the landmarks of a spinal cord slice. Today we’re going to backtract (get it?) a little and go over something basic, but something we’ve skipped over to this point. For those of you who are just finding us, we have every one of these posts in our neuroanatomy category in reverse chronological order. Welcome to day thirty-three in our series. Once you’ve read this post, you should be able to identify the major parts and tell which side is the front of the cord. This cooling can prevent swelling and other processes that are thought to worsen spinal cord injuries.A human cervical spinal cord slice. One such treatment is to pump the body with cold saline to induce hypothermia. Researchers are also looking at ways to prevent the inflammation that worsens nerve damage after injury. Spinal cord injuries are notoriously difficult to treat because spinal nerves do not regenerate, although ongoing research suggests that stem cell transplants may be able to act as a bridge to reconnect severed nerves. For example, if the spinal cord is damaged at the level of the neck, it can cause paralysis from the neck down, whereas damage to the spinal column further down may limit paralysis to the legs. The extent of the paralysis depends on the location of the injury along the spinal cord and whether the spinal cord was completely severed. Because the spinal cord is the information superhighway connecting the brain with the body, damage to the spinal cord can lead to paralysis. In the United States, there around 10,000 spinal cord injuries each year. While a reflex may only require the involvement of one or two synapses, synapses with interneurons in the spinal column transmit information to the brain to convey what happened (the knee jerked, or the hand was hot). For example, the knee reflex that a doctor tests during a routine physical is controlled by a single synapse between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron. Reflexes are so fast because they involve local synaptic connections. These reflexes are quick, unconscious movements-like automatically removing a hand from a hot object. The spinal cord also controls motor reflexes. Axons and cell bodies in the ventral (facing the front of the animal) spinal cord primarily transmit signals controlling movement from the brain to the body.įigure 1. A cross-section of the spinal cord shows gray matter (containing cell bodies and interneurons) and white matter (containing axons). Axons and cell bodies in the dorsal (facing the back of the animal) spinal cord convey mostly sensory information from the body to the brain. Myelinated axons make up the “white matter” and neuron and glial cell bodies make up the “gray matter.” Gray matter is also composed of interneurons, which connect two neurons each located in different parts of the body. A cross-section of the spinal cord looks like a white oval containing a gray butterfly-shape, as illustrated in Figure 1. The spinal cord is contained within the bones of the vertebrate column but is able to communicate signals to and from the body through its connections with spinal nerves (part of the peripheral nervous system). The spinal cord is a thick bundle of nerve tissue that carries information about the body to the brain and from the brain to the body. Identify locations and basic function of the different parts of the spinal cordĬonnecting to the brainstem and extending down the body through the spinal column is the spinal cord. |